Paradigm And Paradigm Shifts

Paradigm And Paradigm Shifts The word paradigm first appeared in English in the 15th century. It comes from Greek, meaning an example or pattern, and it still holds this meaning today. For nearly 400 years it has also been applied in varieties of grammatical properties including verbs, nouns, and other parts of speech of a language. In linguistics, Ferdinand de Saussure used it to refer to a class of elements with similarities. According to 1900 Merriam-Webster dictionary it is defined as a philosophical and theoretical framework of a scientific school or discipline within which theories, laws, and generalizations and the experiments performed in support of them are formulated; broadly: a philosophical or theoretical framework of any kind. From the 1960s onward, the word has been used in science to refer to a theoretical framework, as when Nobel Laureate David Baltimore cited the work of two colleagues that really established a new paradigm for the causation of cancer. Thereafter, researchers in many different fields tried to explore this concept. WHAT IS A PARADIGM? The historian of science, Thomas Kuhn was the first to use the term for science, and referred to the set of practices that define a scientific discipline at certain point in time. He meant something like a framework, a dominant way of thinking and doing things, shared expectations and rules. Further he termed something as disciplinary matrix. He also suggested that paradigms are discrete (separate) and culturally based. For example, a Chinese medical researcher, with an in-depth knowledge of eastern medicine, will live in a different paradigm than a purely western researcher. Alternatively, the Oxford English Dictionary defines paradigm as a pattern or model, an exemple. Thus an additional component of Kuhns definition of paradigm is that how is an experiment to be carried, and what equipment is available to carry the experiment. SCIENTIFIC PARADIGM A scientific paradigm, in the most basic sense of the word, is a framework containing all of the commonly accepted views about a subject, a structure of what direction research should take and how it should be performed (Shuttleworth, 2008). In 1962, Thomas Kuhn, in his book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions defined scientific paradigm as what is to be discovered and inspected, the type of questions that are supposed to be asked and examined for answers in relation to this subject, how these questions are to be organized and how the results of scientific investigations should be analysed. WHAT IS A PARADIGMS ROLE? The philosopher, Thomas Kuhn suggested that scientific research does not progress towards truths, but is subject to belief and remaining emotionally attached to old theories. He gave four basic ways in which a paradigm indirectly influences the scientific process as mentioned above. A paradigm includes what is studied and researched, the kind of questions that are asked, the structure and nature of the questions and how the results of any research are interpreted. Kuhn believed that science required periods of patiently gathering data, in a paradigm, and then revolution occurred as the paradigm turn to maturity. A paradigm can include some errors but they eventually become impossible, like Ptolemys epicycles, and result in a paradigm shift. The new paradigm is not necessarily better than the old one but it is just different. For example, most psychologists weep at the mention of the Freudian paradigm. WHAT IS A PARADIGM SHIFT? Paradigm shifts are mostly used in sciences that appear to be stable and mature, at the end of the 19th century. A paradigm shift (or revolutionary science) is the term used but not named by Thomas Kuhn in his book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions in 1962. Paradigm shift is a successive transition from one paradigm to another via revolution is the usual developmental pattern of mature science. Paradigm shift questions the paradigm itself. It is a change from one way of thinking to another. Its a revolution, a transformation. . It just does not happen, but rather it is driven by agents of change. It is when the model for a process or application or method changes significantly, typically because there has been a leap. Kuhn believes that a paradigm would make an unexpected leap from one to the next, called a shift, and the new paradigm could not be built upon the foundations of the old. The indirect meaning is that one has stepped off the road that the prior paradigm followed onto an intersecting and better road. The term paradigm shift has found uses in other contexts, representing the notion of a major change in a certain thought-pattern; a radical change in personal beliefs, complex systems or organizations, replacing the previous way of thinking or organizing with a radically different way of thinking or organizing. The Paradigm is closely related to the Platonic and Aristotelian views of knowledge. Aristotle believed that knowledge could only be based upon what is already known, the basis of the scientific method. Plato believed that knowledge should be judged by what something could become, the end result, or final purpose. Platos philosophy is more like the intuitive leaps that cause scientific revolution; Aristotles the patient gathering of data. For example, in physics Newtons Laws were an example of a paradigm, and scientists worked upon his principles for centuries. The discovery of the internal structure of the atom started to find problems in the theory, and Einstein provided the out of the box thinking that drew the paradigm in another direction. ELEMENTS OF PARADIGM SHIFT A successful paradigm shift requires four main elements. First is pressure for change, second is a clear shared vision, then capacity for change and actionable first step (Kurkela, 2009). If any of these elements is missing the result would be failure of paradigm. Paradigms affect that what kind of learning resources are required and these learning resources further influence what kind of paradigms can be used or developed. THE ROLE OF PARADIGM SHIFT Paradigm shifting can start with your trying-on of different existing paradigms. For example, a person has the attitude of being an actor taking on a new role for a season on the stage, or for the duration of a movie. He or she goes into it, knowing that it is for a limited time, and that they will emerge from it the other side. During the play or filming period he/she will adopt that character as it is real. Then again actor will put it down again afterwards. However, while in the play or during filming, the actor tries to become that character, and fulfill the requirement of the role to make it natural. EXAMPLES OF PARADIGM SHIFTS IN THE NATURAL SCIENCES The transition in cosmology from a Ptolemaic cosmology to a Copernican one. The transition in optics from geometrical optics to physical optics. The transition in mechanics from Aristotelian mechanics to classical mechanics. The acceptance of Charles Darwins theory of natural selection replaced Lamarckism as the mechanism for evolution. EXAMPLES OF PARADIGM SHIFTS IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES The movement, known as the Cognitive revolution, away from Behaviourist approaches to psychological study and the acceptance of cognition as central to studying human behaviour. The Keynesian Revolution is typically viewed as a major shift in macroeconomics.

schindlers list Essay -- essays research papers

Schindlers List is a movie that takes place during WWII. The movie begins in Krakow, Poland just after the collapse of the Polish army, and at the beginning of the German occupation. Oskar Schindler, a tall handsome womanizer arrives in the city looking to open a factory in order to gain profits from the war. At the time, Jewish people were no long permitted to own a business, so Oskar obtains a factory from a Jewish man named Itzhak Stern, and makes Stern his accountant and manager. The two men form a strange relationship, with Oskar taking advantage of Sterns talent, and Stern distrustingly but obediently following Schindlers orders. Schindler goes to the Jewish ghetto to get the rich Jewish people to invest into his factory, and to get the poor Jews to work for him, since they can provide him with cheap labor. By way of the black market, Schindler obtains numerous delicacies such as liquor and hcocolate for the SS and German officers and sends them gift baskets to get on their go od side. Schindler spent his days entertaining the Nazis, and spending time with his numerous women, while leaving the work of running the factory to Itzhak because in Schindlers mind, he was very capable.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   When Schindler met with Stern, he would tell him stories of how the Jews were being treated. Initially, Schindler took these stories as nothing, however as time went on, Schindler began to feel increasingly more impacted about how the Jews were being treated. He w...

Apple’s Innovation Strategy Essay

Innovation strategies are important for businesses to remain viable in this competitive market. Innovation also allows businesses to set the pace for the future. Apple continues to be the known as one of the leading electronic manufacturers in the world. Their innovation continues to impress consumer and remain a threat to its competitors. Apple is known for its Mac line of products. This paper will describe and evaluate Apple’s Innovative Strategy, provide information from the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) filings, and introduce the Mac Mini from Apple. Description of Innovation Strategy In today’s society, consumers want the latest technology in their homes and businesses. Apple continues to provide new products and meet the needs of the consumers. Apple has been successful because of their effective marketing and research strategies. Apple’s innovation has allowed them to produce desktops, iPads, iPods, notebooks, and wireless devices just to list some of their products (Apple Inc., 2015).. Apple continues to provide high quality, moderately priced products to consumers. The organization uses consumer surveys to get feedback on how well the products are doing in the market. The survey also provides other features consumers would like within a product. In 2014, Apple introduced the Mac Mini after the discontinuation of the server model. The Mac Mini was the first consumer desktop to be sold without display, keyboard, or mouse after Apple’s success release of the iMac (Apple Inc, 2015). The target consumers of this product are consumers changing from the traditional Windows PC. The purpose is compatibility. The Mac Mini added feature is the HDMI port which allows consumers to connect to televisions or other display as an alternative to Apple TV.

Battle of Bentonville - Civil War

Battle of Bentonville - Civil War Battle of Bentonville Conflict Dates: The Battle of Bentonville took place March 19-21, 1865, during the American Civil War (1861-1865). Armies Commanders: Union Major General William T. ShermanMajor General Henry Slocum60,000 men Confederate General Joseph JohnstonGeneral P.G.T. BeauregardGeneral Braxton BraggLieutenant General William Hardee21,000 men Battle of Bentonville - Background: Having taken Savannah in December 1864, after his March to the Sea, Major General William T. Sherman turned north and moved into South Carolina. Cutting a path of destruction through the seat of the secession movement, Sherman captured Columbia before pressing north with the goal of cutting Confederate supply lines to Petersburg, VA. Entering North Carolina on March 8, Sherman split his army into two wings under the command of Major Generals Henry Slocum and Oliver O. Howard. Moving along separate paths, they marched for Goldsboro where they intended to unite with Union forces advancing inland from Wilmington (Map). In an effort to halt this Union thrust and protect his rear, Confederate General-in-Chief Robert E. Lee dispatched General Joseph E. Johnston to North Carolina with orders to form a force to oppose Sherman. With most the Confederate Army in the West shattered, Johnston cobbled together a composite force consisting of the remnants of the Army of Tennessee, a division from Lees Army of Northern Virginia, as well as troops that had been scattered across the southeast. Concentrating his men, Johnston dubbed his command the Army of the South.   As he worked to unite his men, Lieutenant General William Hardee successfully delayed Union forces at the Battle of Averasborough on March 16. Battle of Bentonville - Fighting Begins: Mistakenly believing Shermans two wings to be a full days march apart and unable to support each other, Johnston focused his attention on defeating Slocums column. He hoped to do so before Sherman and Howard could arrive to provide assistance. On March 19, as his men moved north on the Goldsboro Road, Slocum encountered Confederate forces just south of Bentonville. Believing the enemy to be little more than cavalry and artillery, he advanced two divisions from Major General Jefferson C. Davis XIV Corps. Attacking, these two divisions encountered Johnstons infantry and were repulsed. Pulling these divisions back, Slocum formed a defensive line and added Brigadier General James D. Morgans division on the right and provided a division from Major General Alpheus S. Williams XX Corps as a reserve. Of these only Morgans men made an effort to fortify their position and gaps existed in the Union line. Around 3:00 PM, Johnston attacked this position with Major General D.H. Hills troops exploiting the gap. This assault caused the Union left to collapse allowing the right to be flanked. Holding their position, Morgans division fought valiantly before being forced to withdraw (Map). Battle of Bentonville - The Tide Turns: As his line was slowly pushed back, Slocum fed arriving units of XX Corps into the fight while sending messages to Sherman calling for aid. Fighting raged until nightfall, but after five major attacks, Johnston was unable to drive Slocum from the field. As Slocums position became increasingly stronger with reinforcements arriving, the Confederates withdrew to their original positions around midnight and began building earthworks. Having learned of Slocums situation, Sherman ordered a night march and raced to the scene with the right wing of the army. Through the day on March 20, Johnston stayed in position despite the approach of Sherman and the fact that he had Mill Creek to his rear. He later defended this decision by stating that he remained in order to remove his wounded. Skirmishing continued through the day and by late afternoon Sherman had arrived with Howards command. Coming into line on Slocums right, the Union deployment forced Johnston to bend back his line and shift Major General Lafayette McLaws division from his right to extend his left. For the remainder of the day, both forces remained in place with Sherman content to let Johnston retreat (Map). On March 21, Sherman, who wished to avoid a major engagement, was irritated to find Johnston still in place. During the day, the Union right closed to within a few hundred yards of the Confederates. That afternoon, Major General Joseph A. Mower, commanding the division on the extreme Union right, asked permission to conduct a little reconnaissance. Having received clearance, Mower instead moved forward with a large attack on the Confederate left. Moving along a narrow trace, his division assaulted into the Confederate rear and overran Johnstons headquarters and near the Mill Creek Bridge (Map). With their only line of retreat under threat, the Confederates launched a series of counterattacks under the guidance of Lieutenant General William Hardee. These succeeded in containing Mower and pushing his men back. This was aided by orders from an irate Sherman which demanded that Mower break off the action. Sherman later admitted that not reinforcing Mower was a mistake and that it was a missed opportunity to destroy Johnstons army. Despite this, it appears that Sherman was seeking to avoid unnecessary bloodshed during the wars final weeks. Battle of Bentonville - Aftermath: Given a reprieve, Johnston began withdrawing over rain-swollen Mill Creek that night. Spotting the Confederate retreat at dawn, Union forces pursued the Confederates as far as Hannahs Creek. Eager to link up with the other troops at Goldsboro, Sherman resumed his march. In the fighting at Bentonville, Union forces lost 194 killed, 1,112 wounded, 221 missing/captured, while Johnstons command suffered 239 killed, 1,694 wounded, 673 missing/captured. Reaching Goldsboro, Sherman added the forces of Major Generals John Schofield and Alfred Terry to his command. After two and half weeks of rest, his army departed for its final campaign which culminated in Johnstons surrender at Bennett Place on April 26, 1865. Selected Sources CWSAC Battle Summaries: Battle of BentonvilleHistory of War: Battle of BentonvilleCWPT: Battle of Bentonville

Melting Pot Essays - Melting Pot, Abstract, The Melting Pot

Melting Pot Essays - Melting Pot, Abstract, The Melting Pot Melting Pot Melting Pot Mr. Bellamy Jeremy Howard [Type the abstract of the document here. The abstract is typically a short summary of the contents of the document.] Jeremy Howard Mr. Bellamy English 122: Academic Writing II 4-3-2012 Shortly after birth, most Americans have the ethic/racial group identity of their biological parents placed on their birth certificates. This provides an identity (even though it may be a false one) for children that will usually stay with them throughout their lives and will have a major impact on how they see themselves and how others see them as well. It often restricts their choices of friends and marriage partners, especially in the ?south? where most people are reluctant to let the past be just that. In some instances being categorized may create roadblocks in education, careers, and the neighborhood in which they wish to live. When I was a little boy, no one ever asked me what race I was. It was a non-issue, and, as a matter of fact I cannot remember being asked verbally, at any time throughout my life what my race was. I hear some people say I?m one-third this, half of that, and a quarter of this. I find that to be totally ridiculous, how can you truly know what really lies within your blood, people go back so far that it is virtually impossible to track your entire blood-line, (unless your family is royalty or the worlds best record keepers). We are all a melting pot of races, cultures, and backgrounds. In some cases people see a person of darker skin color and automatically assume that this person must be ?black?, or having African American parents, when in fact they could be assuming incorrectly. Some Dominicans have darker skin, for example, David ?Big Papi? Ortiz. Born in the Dominican Republic most people would automatically assume that his origin is African American, simply because of his skin color. Not only is it dangerous to put people in these small categorized boxes it is also wrong. As I stated earlier, we are all comprised of different things, why can?t we simply be called people. Many Americans of mixed ancestry do not fully identify with the single race/ethnic category that they have been assigned to and do not feel comfortable with it. For instance, when one parent is of European and Chinese descent and the other is African and Native American, what single category would their children fit into? For many Americans with complex ancestries such as this, the answer is that they are multi-ethnic. The number of these multi-racial children in America has doubled during each of the last three decades. We as people are a constantly moving organism. To think that anyone has the exact same genetic makeup as his or her first ancestors is a far stretch of the imagination. I believe that people have a need to clarify what race or ethnicity we are simply because they long to be different. Simply being different is not good enough. I also believe that it gives people a sense of pride to be able to say these are my ancestors and so, this is who I am. While some people long to keep their heritage alive others are desperately trying to forget theirs. For me to know that my heritage began in a slave house is hurtful, I do not long to see my great, great, great grand father bound and chained, those are stories I could go a lifetime without hearing. But on the other hand, some people have very rich and lush heritages, and they enjoy hearing about their ancestors. I do not have a problem with that, but my problem lies with the people that believe that, either they are a pure race, or believe that each person should be fitted into an ethnic box. It simply isn?t possible. Most people around the world are identified in terms of ethnic and or racial identity at birth; however, ethnicity is not a static phenomenon. Ethnic groups can change through time in complex ways. Similarly, individual identity in heterogeneous societies today, such as the United States, Canada, and Brazil, can also be flexible-individuals may identify themselves as being members of different ethnic groups or

Career Opportunities for Future Professional Marketing Experts Essay - 163

Career Opportunities for Future Professional Marketing Experts - Essay Example It is important to identify the target market to identify the needs of the customer and meet the needs effectively. Hence, the knowledge learned in marketing will provide an important insight into my position at the oil company that will enable my career in the oil company to progress. In my position, I will involve various marketing strategies such as the provision of quality products to customers. The oil company provides a range of products such as oil and gas. Therefore as a marketer, the credibility of the products offered should be effective to the consumers of the product. In Saudi Arabia, there are different oil companies and therefore in order to gain market advantage in that region, the oil company should provide a wide range of quality products to its consumers. Hence, the market strategies that I will employ in my position within the Saudi Arabian oil company will be important in attaining the goals and objectives of the oil company. At the same time, these strategies will be essential in my career progression and application of the knowledge learned in marketing will provide important insight in my position at the oil company that will enable my career in the oil company to progress.  

Exchange Rate Policies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Exchange Rate Policies - Essay Example Above balance of trade in favor of China says a lot about the comparative advantage that China has in a vast array of goods. Moreover, the pertinent point is that China has successfully tilted the advantage in its favor through a managed exchange rate regime. It is of no surprise that China has accumulated over $3trillion in its reserve through this comparative advantage in trade. A couple of years back, China had pegged its currency Yuan at about 8.28/dollar and that remained at that level fairly for a long time. China transited to a ‘managed float’ in 2005 but till date it has refrained from ‘free floating’ Yuan. China does so because it does not want to see its currency appreciate against dollar. In doing so, China may lose the comparative advantage that it has gained across a wide range of goods. The U.S. is passing through a dire recession and unemployment rate continues to hover around 9 percent for last several quarters. There is no denying to the fact that the U.S. industries are at great loss so far comparative advantage is concerned. That is why economists like Krugman (2011) strongly advocates that a weak dollar is in the interest of U.S. to protect its producers. That is also a way to eliminate the U.S. trade gap with China providing a level playing field to the U.S.